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 If it fails, you may need to write Harddisk1 instead of Harddisk0. If it fails, you may need to write Harddisk1 instead of Harddisk0.
 +
 +===== Linux Filesystem Explained =====
 +
 +To learn more about the [Filesystem Hierarchy Standard](http://www.pathname.com/fhs/), download the PDF file from [here](http://www.pathname.com/fhs/pub/fhs-2.3.pdf).
 +
 +**The Root Filesystem** **Hierarchy**
 +
 +**/** : Root directory
 +
 +**/bin** : Essential user command binaries (for use by all users)
 +
 +/boot : Static files of the bootloader
 +
 +**/dev** : Device files
 +
 +**/etc** : Host-specific system configuration
 +
 +/etc/opt : Configuration files for /opt
 +
 +/etc/X11 : Configuration for the X Window System (optional)
 +
 +/etc/sgml : Configuration files for SGML (optional)
 +
 +/etc/xml : Configuration files for XML (optional)
 +
 +/home : User home directories (optional)
 +
 +/lib: Essential shared libraries and kernel modules
 +
 +**/lib32** and **/lib64** : 32/64-bit libraries (architecture dependent) - alternate format essential shared libraries (optional)
 +
 +/media : Mount point for removeable media
 +
 +/mnt : Mount point for a temporarily mounted filesystem
 +
 +/opt : Add-on application software packages
 +
 +**/proc** : Kernel and process information virtual filesystem
 +
 +/root : Home directory for the root user (optional)
 +
 +**/sbin** : Essential system binaries
 +
 +/srv : Data for services provided by this system
 +
 +/tmp : Temporary files
 +
 +**The /usr Hierarchy**
 +
 +/usr/X11R6 : X Window System, Version 11 Release 6 (optional)
 +
 +/usr/bin : Most user commands
 +
 +**/usr/include** : Directory for standard include files, header files included by C programs.
 +
 +/usr/lib : Libraries for programming and packages
 +
 +**/usr/lib32** or **/usr/lib64** : Alternate format libraries (optional)
 +
 +/usr/local : Local hierarchy
 +
 +/usr/local/share : Shared stuff
 +
 +/usr/sbin: Non-essential standard system binaries
 +
 +/usr/share : Architecture-independent data
 +
 +/usr/share/dict : Wordlists (optional)
 +
 +/usr/share/man : Manual pages
 +
 +/usr/share/misc : Miscellaneous architecture-independent data
 +
 +/usr/share/sgml: SGML data (optional)
 +
 +/usr/share/xml : XML data (optional)
 +
 +**/usr/src** : Source code (optional)
 +
 +**The /var Hierarchy**
 +
 +/var/account : Process accounting logs (optional)
 +
 +/var/cache : Application cache data
 +
 +/var/cache/fonts : Locally-generated fonts (optional)
 +
 +/var/cache/man: Locally-formatted manual pages (optional)
 +
 +/var/crash : System crash dumps (optional)
 +
 +/var/games : Variable game data (optional)
 +
 +/var/lib : Variable state information
 +
 +/var/lib/ : Editor backup files and state (optional)
 +
 +/var/lib/hwclock : State directory for hardware clock (optional)
 +
 +/var/lib/misc : Miscellaneous variable data
 +
 +/var/lock : Lock files
 +
 +/var/log : Log files and directories
 +
 +/var/mail : User mailbox files (optional)
 +
 +/var/opt : Variable data for /opt
 +
 +/var/run : Run-time variable data
 +
 +/var/spool : Application spool data
 +
 +**/var/spool/cron** : cron and at jobs
 +
 +/var/spool/lpd : Line-printer daemon print queues (optional)
 +
 +/var/spool/rwho : Rwhod files (optional)
 +
 +/var/tmp : Temporary files preserved between system reboots
 +
 +/var/yp : Network Information Service (NIS) database files (optional)
 +
 +===== Linux Terminal Command Reference =====
 +
 +### System Info
 +
 +**date** – Show the current date and time
 +**cal** – Show this month's calendar
 +**uptime** – Show current uptime
 +**w** – Display who is online
 +**whoami** – Who you are logged in as
 +**finger *user*** – Display information about ***user***
 +**uname -a** – Show kernel information
 +**cat /proc/cpuinfo** – CPU information
 +**cat /proc/meminfo** – Memory information
 +**df** **-h** – Show disk usage
 +**du** – Show directory space usage
 +**free** – Show memory and swap usage
 +
 +### Keyboard Shortcuts
 +
 +**Enter** – Run the command
 +**Up Arrow** – Show the previous command
 +**Ctrl + R** – Allows you to type a part of the command you're looking for and finds it
 +
 +**Ctrl + Z** – Stops the current command, resume with **fg** in the foreground or **bg** in the background
 +**Ctrl + C** – Halts the current command, cancel the current operation and/or start with a fresh new line
 +**Ctrl + L** – Clear the screen
 +
 +***command* | less** – Allows the scrolling of the bash command window using **Shift + Up Arrow** and **Shift + Down Arrow**
 +**!!** – Repeats the last command
 +***command*** **!$** – Repeats the last argument of the previous command
 +**Esc + . (a period)** – Insert the last argument of the previous command on the fly, which enables you to edit it before executing the command
 +
 +**Ctrl + A** – Return to the start of the command you're typing
 +**Ctrl + E** – Go to the end of the command you're typing
 +**Ctrl + U** – Cut everything before the cursor to a special clipboard, erases the whole line
 +**Ctrl + K** – Cut everything after the cursor to a special clipboard
 +**Ctrl + Y** – Paste from the special clipboard that **Ctrl + U** and **Ctrl + K** save their data to
 +**Ctrl + T** – Swap the two characters before the cursor (you can actually use this to transport a character from the left to the right, try it!)
 +**Ctrl + W** – Delete the word / argument left of the cursor in the current line
 +
 +**Ctrl + D** – Log out of current session, similar to **exit**
 +
 +### Learn the Commands
 +
 +**apropos** ***subject*** – List manual pages for ***subject***
 +**man -k *keyword*** – Display man pages containing ***keyword***
 +**man *command*** – Show the manual for ***command***
 +**man -t *man* | ps2pdf - > *man.pdf*** – Make a pdf of a manual page
 +**which** ***command*** – Show full path name of ***command***
 +**time *command*** – See how long a ***command*** takes
 +
 +**whereis *app*** – Show possible locations of ***app***
 +**which *app*** – Show which ***app*** will be run by default; it shows the full path
 +
 +### Searching
 +
 +**grep *pattern* *files*** – Search for ***pattern*** in ***files***
 +**grep -r *pattern* *dir*** – Search recursively for ***pattern*** in ***dir***
 +***command |*** **grep** ***pattern*** – Search for ***pattern*** in the output of ***command***
 +**locate *file*** – Find all instances of ***file***
 +**find / -name *filename*** – Starting with the root directory, look for the file called ***filename***
 +**find / -name ”**filename**”** – Starting with the root directory, look for the file containing the string ***filename***
 +**locate *filename*** – Find a file called ***filename*** using the locate command; this assumes you have already used the command **updatedb** (see next)
 +**updatedb** – Create or update the database of files on all file systems attached to the Linux root directory
 +**which *filename*** – Show the subdirectory containing the executable file called ***filename***
 +**grep *TextStringToFind* /*dir*** – Starting with the directory called ***dir***, look for and list all files containing ***TextStringToFind***
 +
 +### File Permissions
 +
 +**chmod *octal* *file*** – Change the permissions of ***file*** to ***octal***, which can be found separately for user, group, and world by adding: 4 – read (r), 2 – write (w), 1 – execute (x)
 +Examples:
 +**chmod 777** – read, write, execute for all
 +**chmod 755** – rwx for owner, rx for group and world
 +For more options, see **man chmod**.
 +
 +### File Commands
 +
 +**ls** – Directory listing
 +**ls -l** – List files in current directory using long format
 +**ls -laC** – List all files in current directory in long format and display in columns
 +**ls -F** – List files in current directory and indicate the file type
 +**ls -al** – Formatted listing with hidden files
 +
 +**cd *dir*** – Change directory to ***dir***
 +**cd** – Change to home
 +**mkdir** ***dir*** – Create a directory ***dir***
 +**pwd** – Show current directory
 +
 +**rm *name*** – Remove a file or directory called ***name***
 +**rm** ***-r dir*** – Delete directory ***dir***
 +**rm -f *file*** – Force remove ***file***
 +**rm -rf *dir*** – Force remove an entire directory ***dir*** and all it’s included files and subdirectories (use with extreme caution)
 +
 +**cp *file1 file2*** – Copy ***file1*** to ***file2***
 +**cp -r *dir1 dir2*** – Copy ***dir1*** to ***dir2***; create ***dir2*** if it doesn't exist
 +**cp *file* /home/*dirname*** – Copy the filename called ***file*** to the **/home/dirname** directory
 +
 +**mv *file* /home/*dirname*** – Move the ***file*** called filename to the ***/home/dirname*** directory
 +**mv** ***file1 file2*** – Rename or move ***file1*** to ***file2***; if ***file2*** is an existing directory, moves ***file1*** into directory ***file2***
 +
 +**ln -s *file link*** – Create symbolic link ***link*** to ***file***
 +**touch *file*** – Create or update ***file***
 +**cat > *file*** – Places standard input into ***file***
 +**cat *file*** – Display the file called ***file***
 +
 +**more *file*** – Display the file called ***file*** one page at a time, proceed to next page using the spacebar
 +**head *file*** – Output the first 10 lines of ***file***
 +**head -20 *file*** – Display the first 20 lines of the file called ***file***
 +**tail *file*** – Output the last 10 lines of ***file***
 +**tail -20 *file*** – Display the last 20 lines of the file called ***file***
 +**tail -f *file*** – Output the contents of ***file*** as it grows, starting with the last 10 lines
 +
 +### Compression
 +
 +**tar cf *file.tar files*** – Create a tar named ***file.tar*** containing ***files***
 +***tar xf file.tar*** – Extract the files from ***file.tar***
 +
 +**tar czf *file.tar.gz files*** – Create a tar with Gzip compression
 +**tar xzf *file.tar.gz*** – Extract a tar using Gzip
 +
 +***tar cjf file.tar.bz2*** – Create a tar with Bzip2 compression
 +**tar xjf *file.tar.bz2*** – Extract a tar using Bzip2
 +
 +**gzip *file*** – Compresses ***file*** and renames it to ***file.gz***
 +**gzip -d *file.gz*** – Decompresses ***file.gz*** back to ***file***
 +
 +### Printing
 +
 +**/etc/rc.d/init.d/lpd start** – Start the print daemon
 +**/etc/rc.d/init.d/lpd stop** – Stop the print daemon
 +**/etc/rc.d/init.d/lpd status** – Display status of the print daemon
 +**lpq** – Display jobs in print queue
 +**lprm** – Remove jobs from queue
 +**lpr** – Print a file
 +**lpc** – Printer control tool
 +**man *subject* | lpr** – Print the manual page called ***subject*** as plain text
 +**man -t *subject* | lpr** – Print the manual page called ***subject*** as Postscript output
 +**printtool** – Start X printer setup interface
 +
 +### Network
 +
 +**ifconfig** – List IP addresses for all devices on the local machine
 +**iwconfig** – Used to set the parameters of the network interface which are specific to the wireless operation (for example: the frequency)
 +**iwlist** – used to display some additional information from a wireless network interface that is not displayed by **iwconfig**
 +**ping** ***host*** – Ping ***host*** and output results
 +**whois *domain*** – Get whois information for ***domain***
 +**dig *domain*** – Get DNS information for ***domain***
 +**dig -x** ***host*** – Reverse lookup ***host***
 +**wget *file*** – Download ***file***
 +**wget -c** ***file*** – Continue a stopped download
 +
 +### SSH
 +
 +**ssh *user*@*host*** – Connect to ***host*** as ***user***
 +**ssh -p *port user*@*host*** – Connect to ***host*** on port ***port*** as ***user***
 +**ssh-copy-id *user*@*host*** – Add your key to ***host*** for ***user*** to enable a keyed or passwordless login
 +
 +### User Administration
 +
 +**adduser** ***accountname*** – Create a new user call ***accountname***
 +**passwd *accountname*** – Give ***accountname*** a new password
 +**su** – Log in as superuser from current login
 +**exit** – Stop being superuser and revert to normal user
 +
 +### Process Management
 +
 +**ps** – Display your currently active processes
 +**top** – Display all running processes
 +**kill *pid*** – Kill process id ***pid***
 +**killall *proc*** – Kill all processes named ***proc*** (use with extreme caution)
 +**bg** – Lists stopped or background jobs; resume a stopped job in the background
 +**fg** – Brings the most recent job to foreground
 +**fg** ***n*** – Brings job ***n*** to the foreground
 +
 +### Installation from source
 +
 +**./configure**
 +**make**
 +**make install**
 +**dpkg -i** ***pkg.deb*** – install a DEB package (Debian / Ubuntu / Linux Mint)
 +**rpm -Uvh *pkg.rpm*** – install a RPM package (Red Hat / Fedora)
 +
 +### Stopping & Starting
 +
 +**shutdown -h now** – Shutdown the system now and do not reboot
 +**halt** – Stop all processes - same as above
 +**shutdown -r 5** – Shutdown the system in 5 minutes and reboot
 +**shutdown -r now** – Shutdown the system now and reboot
 +**reboot** – Stop all processes and then reboot - same as above
 +**startx** – Start the X system
 +
 +Recommended reading:
 +
 +[Cheat-Sheets.org](http://www.cheat-sheets.org/#Linux) – All cheat sheets, round-ups, quick reference cards, quick reference guides and quick reference sheets in one page. The only one you need.
 +
 +[Tutorial: The best tips & tricks for bash, explained](http://www.linuxtutorialblog.com/post/tutorial-the-best-tips-tricks-for-bash) – Linux Tutorial Blog / Quality Linux tutorials without clutter
 +
 +[LinuxCommand.org](http://linuxcommand.org/) – Learning the shell, Writing shell scripts, Script library, SuperMan pages, Who, What, Where, Why
 +
 +[LinuxManPages.com](http://linuxmanpages.com/) – General commands, System calls, Subroutines, Special files, File formats, Games, Macros and conventions, Maintenence commands, Most Popular Man Pages
 +
 +[Linux Man Pages from die.net](http://linux.die.net/man/) – Man pages are grouped into sections, to see the full list of Linux man pages for a section, pick one. Or you can browse Linux man pages by name; choose the first letter of the name of the Linux command, function, or file you are interested in.
 +
 +[Linux Newbie Guide: Shorcuts and Commands](http://www.unixguide.net/linux/linuxshortcuts.shtml) – Linux essential shortcuts and sanity commands; Common Linux commands - system info; Basic operations, network apps, file (de)compression; Process control; Basic administration commands, accessing drives/partitions; Network administration tools, music-related commands, graphics-related commands.
 +
 +[Sudo Manual Pages](http://www.gratisoft.us/sudo/man.html) – Sudo (su "do") allows a system administrator to delegate authority to give certain users (or groups of users) the ability to run some (or all) commands as root or another user while providing an audit trail of the commands and their arguments. For more information, see the [introduction to Sudo](http://www.gratisoft.us/sudo/intro.html). Sudo is *free software*, distributed under an [ISC-style license](http://www.gratisoft.us/sudo/license.html).
 +
 +[LinOxide.com](http://linoxide.com/linux-command/linux-commands-cheat-sheet/) – Linux Commands Cheat Sheet in Black & White
  
  
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  • Last modified: 2021/12/04 11:38
  • by alexio